CW CHAPTER 1
CHAPTER 1: INITIALIZING A GEM PROGRAM -------------------------------------- [NOTE: Words enclosed in asterisks (i.e. *word*) should be read as italicized text. This text file is copyright 1993 by Clayton Walnum. All rights reserved.] In volume 1 of the *Assembly Language Workshop* we learned to write TOS programs--that is, programs that use the ST's operating system, yet don't contain any calls to GEM, the ST's graphical user interface. We delayed learning about GEM because a GEM program is much more complex than a straight TOS program. For one thing, a GEM program requires some tricky initialization, as well as some data structures we weren't prepared to discuss previously. However, now that we understand the basics of assembly language programming on the ST, we can press forward and learn how to write GEM programs. In this chapter, we'll see what initialization is required to get a GEM program up and running, including setting up our own stack, returning unused memory to the system, and defining the various data arrays that GEM requires in order to pass information between our programs and the operating system. We'll also see how to call AES functions. --The Components of GEM-- We previously learned that TOS, the ST's operating system, is made up of several components: GEMDOS, BIOS, and the XBIOS. Likewise, GEM, the interface that isolates the user from the complexities of TOS, is divided into different components: the AES (Application Environment Services) and the VDI (Virtual Device Interface). The AES is the part of GEM that handles menus, dialog boxes, and windows. The VDI is the part of GEM that the AES uses to construct those menus, dialog boxes, and windows. In short, the VDI is a collection of graphics primitives (low-level graphics functions) that do things such as draw lines, rectangles, and circles. The VDI also provides functions for reading the mouse buttons and mouse position, among other things. --The Program-- In this chapter, we'll see how to initialize a GEM application and how to call the AES. In the CHAP1 folder of your *ST Assembly Language Workshop* disk, you'll find two files. PROG1.S is the source code for this chapter's sample program, which is reprinted at the end of this chapter. PROG1.PRG is the assembled, runnable program file. If you would like to assemble the program yourself, please consult your assembler's manual or refer to this book's Appendix A. To run the program, double-click the PROG1.PRG file. When you do, an alert box will appear on the screen with the message "My first alert box!" To exit the program, click the alert box's button. --Initializing GEM-- Considering the size of the source code, this chapter's program sure doesn't do much, does it? The fact is, most of the source code does nothing more than initialize the program. Only about half a dozen lines do anything that we can actually see on the screen. To initialize, run, and terminate a GEM application program, we must perform at least six main steps: 1) Set up a stack. 2) Calculate the size of our program and return unused memory back to the system. 3) Call *appl_init* to initialize the application. 4) Perform our main program code. 5) Call *appl_exit* to close down our application. 6) Call *pterm0* to return to the desktop (or the calling program). If we are going to use the VDI, there are also a couple of other steps that we must perform. However, because we are currently concerned only with a minimum GEM application--one that makes no calls to the VDI (except through the AES)--we can save those details until later. --Setting Up Our Own Stack-- When we were writing simple TOS programs, we didn't worry too much about where our stack was located. We just let the system take care of it. However, because GEM allows several programs to be loaded at once (desk accessories), as well as allows one program to load another, we need a stack for each program. Obviously, we can't have one program using another program's stack. The result would almost certainly be a line of bombs on the screen. So, the first step in initiaizing a GEM program is to set up our own stack. In this chapter's sample program, the first two lines perform this important step. They look like this: move.l a7,a5 lea stack,sp Here, the first line saves the contents of a7. (Remember, a7 is the stack pointer; at the start of the program it contains an important address that we'll soon learn about.) In the second line, we load the address of our own stack into the stack pointer (a7), which is all we need to do to tell the system where our stack is located. But where is our stack? Take a look at the *bss* section of our program. You'll see these lines: ds.l 255 stack: ds.l 1 These two lines reserve 256 longwords of storage (1K) for our stack. In most cases, a 1K stack is plenty large enough. (If your program uses a lot of recursion or other stack- intensive operations, your stack may need to be larger.) But wait a minute! Why is our address label *stack* at the end of this area? Don't we normally put a label on the starting address of a block rather than at the ending address? We sure do. And in the case of a stack, the block's ending address is actually the stack's starting address. (Is your head spinning yet?) Remember: A stack stores values backward through memory, not forward. If we were to label the first byte of our stack area, the first time we came across an instruction like *move.w #1,-(sp)*, we'd end up tromping all over our program's other data. This can yield some hard-to-find bugs, believe me. --Finding the Size of a Program-- When the ST runs a program, it allocates all of the available memory to that program. When we were running non- GEM programs, that wasn't a problem. Then, we weren't concerned with memory considersations such loading resource files and dealing with desk accessories. With a GEM program, however, we must be concerned with these issues. For example, most GEM programs use menus and dialog boxes. The data that defines these graphical objects are usually contained in a resource file that must be loaded by the program at run time. If the ST gives our program all the memory in the system, and we don't bother to return what we don't need, where are we going to put our resources? The second step in initializing a GEM application, then, is to calculate the size of our program and return all unused memory to the heap (a strange word that's used to describe unallocated system memory). To calculate the size of a program, we need to know a little about how the ST loads a program into memory. --The Transient Program Area-- A program is loaded into what is called a Transient Program Area (TPA). Upon a program's start-up, the TPA contains three main sections (see Figure 1.1): the base page, the program code (including its data), and the heap. The base page contains important information about the program, including the starting and ending addresses of the TPA, and the addresses and lengths of each of the program segments. The program section contains the program's text segment (the code), the data segment (initialized data), the BSS segment (uninitialized storage), and the stack. The heap, of course, contains all the system's remaining memory. It is this portion of the TPA that we must return to the system. [INSERT FIGURE 1.1 HERE] In order to know how much memory we can return to the system, we need to calculate how much we need. The amount of memory we need is the memory that comprises the TPA minus the size of the heap. It would have been nice if the ST's designers had calculated this value for us. Unfortunately, we need to calculate it ourselves, by adding together the sizes of each section of the TPA. Look at the sample program. Right after we initialize our stack, you'll see these lines: move.l 4(a5),a5 move.l 12(a5),d0 add.l 20(a5),d0 add.l 28(a5),d0 add.l #$100,d0 These instructions calculate the size of our program. In the first line, we change A5 to the address of our TPA, which is also the address of the base page. This weird-looking instruction probably requires a little explanation. If you recall, we previously loaded the address of the old stack into A5, right before we changed A7 to point to our own stack. At this point, we actually have two stack pointers. A5 points to the old stack, and A7 points to the new stack. When we ran our program, the system placed the address of the TPA into the second word of the system stack, the stack now pointed to by A5. So, to load A5 with the address of the TPA, we need to load it with the second word of the old stack. To get to the second word of the stack, we use address register indirect addressing with displacement, using the stack pointer as the address register. Don't let it bother you that the source and destination registers are the same. In the first line above, all we're doing is moving the second word pointed to by A5 into A5. This makes A5 point to our TPA. Now that A5 is pointing to the start of the base page, we can start to figure out the size of our program space. At an offset of 12 bytes from the start of the TPA, we'll find the length of our program's text segment. The second line above loads that value into D0. Now, we need to add the sizes of the data and BSS segments. Those values are found at offsets of 20 and 28, respectively. The third and fourth lines above add those values to D0. Finally, we need only add the size of the base page, which is 256 bytes or $100 in hexadecimal. The last line above takes care of that. --Returning Unused Memory to the System-- With the size of our program area safely tucked away in D0, we're ready to call the GEMDOS function *Mshrink* (opcode #74), which returns the memory we don't need back to the system. We do this with the following lines: move.l d0,-(sp) move.l a5,-(sp) clr.w -(sp) move.w #MSHRINK,-(sp) trap #1 add.l #12,sp As you can see, the *Mshrink* function requires three parameters on the stack: the size of our program area, the address of the TPA, and a dummy word. After this system call, the ST will again have access to any unused memory. --Getting Ready for the AES-- In our sample program, we call the AES in order to display an alert box. Before we can call the AES, though, we need to do some further initialization. Specifically, we must supply the AES with seven arrays: the global array, the control array, the int_in array, the int_out array, the addr_in array, the addr_out array, and the AES parameter block. Yikes! --The Global Array-- The global array, which comprises nine elements, contains important information required by the AES library. The first three elements are words (two bytes). The rest are longwords (four bytes). How do we initialize the global array? We need do nothing more than provide space for it in our BSS segment. Look the the sample program's BSS segment. At the top of this area, you'll see the label *global*, which marks the beginning of the global array. After that label, you'll see each of the nine elements defined, three words and six longwords. Note that, for documentation's sake at least, each of the array's elements has an appropriate label. After we define the global array, we can forget it. The AES will deal with it as it sees fit, all behind our back, as it were. --The Control Array-- The control array comprises five two-byte (word) elements. We must use the control array to pass information to AES when we call its functions, rather than using the stack as we do when calling TOS functions. In turn, the AES uses the control array to pass information back to us, after a particular function has executed. We define the control array similarly to how we defined the global array, by creating space for it in our BSS segment. If you look in this chapter's program listing, you'll see the control array defined right after the global array. The label *control* marks the beginning of the array, while the labels *control0* through *control4* hold the adresses of each element of the array. By using these labels, we can easily access any of the five elements. --The Input and Output Arrays-- The int_in, int_out, addr_in, and addr_out arrays are used in conjunction with the control array to pass information from our program to the AES and from the AES back to our program. We use the "in" arrays to send information to the AES. The AES uses the "out" arrays to return function results to us. The number of elements in the arrays vary, depending on the AES functions we plan to call. This is because different functions have different numbers of parameters. In our sample program, right after the control array, we've reserved only one element for each of the arrays. That's all we need for the function we'll be calling. Because the int_in and int_out arrays are for storing integers, their elements need to be word sized. The addr_in and addr_out arrays, however, hold addresses, so their elements must be longwords. --The AES Parameter Block-- Of course, before the AES can use any of the arrays we've set up for it, it must know where they are. We communicate this information with the AES parameter block (APB). The APB is nothing more than a table of addresses. Specifically, it contains the addresses of the control, global, int_in, int_out, addr_in, and addr_out arrays, in that order. You'll find our sample program's APB in the data segment, above the global array. --Calling an AES Function-- Now that we know all about the AES's arrays, we're ready to learn to call the AES. To call the AES, we must follow the steps below: 1) Place the appropriate values into the control array. 2) If required, place the appropriate parameters into the int_in and addr_in arrays. 3) Load the address of the APB into D1. 4) Load the AES ID into D0. 5) Perform a *trap #2*. Let's take a look at the sample program to see how all this works. Look at the section of code following the *MShrink* call. You'll see the following instructions: clr.l ap_ptree clr.l ap_1resv clr.l ap_2resv clr.l ap_3resv clr.l ap_4resv Here, we're clearing five elements of the global array, as is suggested by Atari's OS documentation. If we didn't clear these fields, probably nothing bad would happen to our program. But Atari says to do it. That's good enough for me. After initializing the global array, we make our first AES function call with the following code: move.w #APPL_INIT,control0 clr.w control1 move.w #1,control2 clr.w control3 clr.w control4 jsr aes cmpi #$FFFF,ap_id beq end This is a call to the AES function *appl_init* (opcode #10), which initializes a new GEM application. Every GEM program must call this function before making any other GEM calls. The *appl_init* function notifies the OS of our program, so that it can set up the required resources. This call also stores important information into some elements of the global array, the most important of which is our application's ID. In the first line, we place the *appl_init* opcode into *control0*. The opcode of the AES function we're calling always goes into this array element. Next, we place a zero in *control1*, which tells the AES that we are passing no values in the int_in array. Then, we place a 1 in *control2*, telling the AES that we expect one value (the application's ID) to be returned in the int_out array. Because we are passing no addresses in the addr_in array, and because we expect no addresses returned to us in the addr_out array, we place zeros in *control3* and *control4*. After the appropriate arrays are initialized, a call to the AES is always done the same way, so in our sample program, we've placed the necessary code into a subroutine. The instruction *jsr aes* above calls this subroutine, which is located at the end of the program, right above our data segment. The subroutine looks like this: movem.l a0-a7/d0-d7,-(sp) move.l #apb,d1 move.l #AES_OPCODE,d0 trap #2 movem.l (sp)+,a0-a7/d0-d7 rts First, we save the contents of the registers. Then we move the address of our APB into D1 and the AES opcode into D0. Finally, we call the AES with a *trap #2*. The AES then uses the APB to find the addresses of the arrays it needs, and it performs the instructions in finds in those arrays. --Displaying an Alert Box-- After we've called *appl_init*, we're all ready to take full advantage of some of the great stuff that GEM has to offer. (We can't yet call the VDI directly, however; further initialization is required for that.) One of the easiest things we can do with GEM is call up an alert box. And in the next section of code, we do just that. But before we look at the code, let's talk a bit about alert boxes. As you probably know, GEM supports a special input window called a dialog box. Dialog boxes come in many, many types, most of which are designed by the application's programmer. The AES, however, supplies a couple of ready- made dialog boxes that we can use without having to create it in a resource file. The simplest of these ready-made dialog boxes is the alert box. An alert box may contain several elements: an icon, up to five lines of text (maximum of 32 characters per line), and up to three labeled buttons. One of the three buttons may be a default button, which is automatically chosen when the user presses Return. The default button always has a darker border than the other buttons. When we tell the AES to construct an alert box for us, we must tell it what icon and text to display. We must also tell it how many buttons we want in the box, and which of the buttons, if any, is to be the default. All of this information is transferred to the AES via the control, int_in, and int_out arrays. Take a look at the sample program. Right below our call to *appl_init*, you'll see the following code: move.w #FORM_ALERT,control0 move.w #1,control1 move.w #1,control2 move.w #1,control3 move.w #0,control4 move.w #1,int_in move.l #string,addr_in jsr aes This is the code that creates and displays the alert box. In the first line, we move the opcode for the AES function, *form_alert* (opcode #52), into *control1*. In the next four lines, we tell the AES that the int_in, int_out, and addr_in arrays are each one element long, and that the addr_out array is zero elements long. We then place a 1 in the first element of int_in, which tells the AES that we want the first button to be the default button. This value can be any of the following: 0 -- no default button 1 -- first button is the default 2 -- second button is the default 3 -- third button is the default After setting the default button, we load the address of a string into the first element of addr_in. What string, you ask? The string that tells *form_alert* what icon, text, and buttons to display. The string is made up of three parts, each part surrounded by square brackets: [ICON #][BOX TEXT][BUTTON TEXT] ICON # tells *form_alert* which icon to display. BOX TEXT is the text that we want to appear in the alert box. Each line of text must be separated by the OR character (|), like this: [LINE1|LINE2|LINE3|LINE 4|LINE5] BUTTON TEXT tells *form_alert* what text to put into the buttons. Again, if there is more than one button, the text for each must be separated by the OR character, like this: [BUTTON1|BUTTON2|BUTTON3] So, a string used to create a typical alert box might look something like this: [1][Your File has been changed.|Do you want to save it?][YES|NO] You can find the string used in the sample program to create the alert box, in the data section of the program listing. Getting back to our program, after we load the address of the alert-box text string into addr_in, we call our *aes* subroutine, and the alert box is displayed on the screen. The user can exit the alert box onLy by clicking one of its buttons. The number of the button the user clicks is returned in the first element of the int_out array. The alert box in our sample program has only one button, so we don't need to use the information stored in the int_out array, but if we had had more than one choice, we would have used the value from int_out to decide what to do next. --Shutting Down a GEM Application-- The complement of the *appl_init* function is *appl_exit* (opcode #19). Before returning to the desktop from a GEM program, we must be sure to call this function, because it tells the AES that the program is terminating and that the AES should return to the system whatever resources were allocated. We call the *appl_exit* function like this: move.w #APPL_EXIT,control0 move.w #0,control1 move.w #1,control2 move.w #0,control3 move.w #0,control4 jsr aes After a call to *appl_exit*, the first element of int_out will contain a zero if an error occurred or a number greater than zero if no error occurred. Once we've terminated the GEM program, all we must do to end the program is return to the desktop. We do this just as we did before, with a call to *Pterm0*. --Conclusion-- Now you know why we saved GEM programming for volume 2 of the workshop. Just doing something simple like bringing an alert box up on the screen takes many lines of code and requires much knowledge of the way GEM works. Take your time with this chapter and be sure you understand it all. It's the basis for all to follow. --Summary-- * GEM comprises two main components: the AES and the VDI. * The AES handles menus, dialog, boxes, and windows. The AES calls upon the VDI, which contains a library of graphics primitives, as well as functions for handling the mouse, among other things. * To initialize, run, and terminate a GEM application, we must perform six main steps: Set up a stack, return unused memory to the system, call *appl_init*, perform the main program code, call *appl_exit*, and call *Pterm0*. * We set up a stack by allocating space for it in our BSS, and then setting the stack pointer to that space. * To return unused memory to the system, we must first calculate the size of our program. We use the information found in the Trasient Program Area (TPA) to do this. * The address of the TPA can be found in the second word of the system's stack upon program startup. * The GEMDOS function #74, *Mshrink*, returns unused memory to the system. * In order to function properly, the AES requires seven arrays to receive information from and to send information to our program. They are the global array, the control array, the int_in array, the int_out array, the addr_in array, the addr_out array, and the AES parameter block. * To call an AES routine, we must perform five main steps: Place the appropriate values into the control array, place the appropriate parameters into the int_in and addr_in arrays, load the address of the APB into D1, load the AES ID into D0, and perform a *trap #2*. * The AES function #10, *appl_init* initializes a new GEM application. * An alert box is one of the ready-made dialog boxes that GEM provides. * The AES function #52, *form_alert*, creates an alert box on the screen. * The AES function #19, *appl_exit*, terminates a GEM application, returning all its resources to the system.
CW_PROG1.s (Source of the chapiter)
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